Political Science Unit 1: Definitions and Concepts

Political Science Unit 1: Definitions and Concepts

1.1 Definition of Political Science

The term "Politics" originates from the Greek words "Polis" (city) and "Politia" (citizenship or governance).

Eastern vs. Western Perspectives

• Eastern: Theories from the Vedas, Ramayana, and Mahabharata.
• Western: Theories by Plato, Aristotle, and Socrates.

In ancient Greece, political science was called civic science due to its focus on city-states.

Scholars like Lasswell, Almond, Powell, David, and Robert Dahl define political science as the study of political aspects of human behavior.

Modern thinkers describe it as the study of the state and government holistically.

Key Contributions

• David Easton: First to apply systems theory; authored The Political System (1953) and A Framework for Political Analysis (1965).
• Almond and Powell: Authored Comparative Politics: A Developmental Approach.
• Max Weber: Defines a political system as a community claiming a monopoly over legitimate power within a boundary.
• Robert Dahl: Defines it as a structure of human relationships employing power, rules, or authority.

Traditional Definitions

• Paul Janet: "Political science is that branch of social science that deals with the foundations of the state and the principles of government."
• Aristotle: "Political science comprehensively studies people living in society."
• Gettel: "Political science examines what the state was in the past, what it is in the present, and what its ideal form should be."
• Leacock: "Political science studies the science related to government."

Characteristics of a Political System (Almond and Powell)

1. Interdependence of components.
2. Boundaries of the political system.
3. Environment of the political system.
4. Legitimate use of physical coercion.

Robert Dahl (author of Modern Political Analysis) identifies eight characteristics of a political system.

Causes of Unequal Control of Political Resources

1. Specialization of tasks.
2. Differences arising from birth.
3. Differences in goals and motivating factors.

Causes of Unequal Distribution of Political Influence

1. Inequality in resource distribution.
2. Differences in individuals’ ability to use resources.
3. Individuals’ willingness to use resources for political purposes.

The ideology of rulers is the ruling ideology.

Prof. Laski: Political science is related to the development of organized states and human progress.

Modern Definitions (Post-1960s)

• Beusali, Salto, Gary, Garner: Political science is the science of studying the state.
• Lasswell: "Political science is an empirical science whose main objective is to determine power and participation in power."
• Beusali: "Political science is the science related to the state, analyzing its fundamental conditions, form, and development."
• Garner: "Political science begins and ends with the state."
• Aristotle (Father of Political Science):
  • "Political science provides knowledge and insight into state systems and enables a good life for all."
  • "Man is a social animal, and political science studies people living in society."
• Seeley: "Political science studies government elements like economics studies wealth, biology studies life, and geometry studies space."
• Paul Janet: Reiterates political science’s focus on state and government principles.

Input-Output Analysis (David Easton)

1. Inputs.
2. Transformation.
3. Outputs.
4. Feedback.

Main Sources of Inputs

1. Rulers or elites.
2. Domestic environment.
3. International environment.

Almond and Powell: Proposed functional analysis.

Herbert H. Hyman: Introduced political socialization in Political Socialization: A Study in the Psychology of Political Behavior (1959).

Lucian W. Pye: Authored Aspects of Political Development.

LaPalombara and Weiner: Authored Political Parties and Political Development.

David Easton: Views political science as the authoritative allocation of values.

Robert Dahl: Political science is related to power, governance, and authority.

Max Weber: Political science studies activities involving the use or threat of physical force within boundaries.

1.2 Scope of Political Science

• Ancient scholars included cities, states, societies, human behavior, and psychology in the scope.
• Encompasses discipline, conduct, morality, civilization, social events, problems, and their resolution.
• Includes economic and social organs of government, international organizations, and diplomatic relations.
• Primarily studies the state and government.
• Scope expanded due to global political influence, growth of political science, and increasing political parties.

1.3 Methods of Studying Political Science

Divided into traditional and modern (scientific) methods.

Traditional Methods

1. Historical Method.
2. Philosophical Method.
3. Comparative Method.
4. Experimental Method.
5. Observational Method.

1. Historical Method

• History aids in studying social complexities, shaping the present with past experiences.
• Essential for studying historical events, traditions, and customs.
• Karl Marx: Used history to develop communism.
• Requires caution to avoid bias; users must remain neutral.
• Resolves contemporary issues based on past precedents.
• Seeley: "History without political science bears no fruit, and political science without history has no roots."
• Gettel: "Caution is needed in selecting and analyzing subjects, avoiding bias."
• Kejrer: "History is a treasury of examples, but must be used without bias."
• Provides insights into the origin and development of political institutions and ideas.
• Notable users: Machiavelli, Montesquieu, Hegel.

2. Philosophical Method

• Distinguishes good from bad, considered useful.
• Addresses questions about human nature and social organization purposes.
• More imaginative than practical, prone to errors.
• Emphasizes deep study and contemplation.
• Plato’s Ideal State: A key example.
• Notable users: Plato, Rousseau, Mill.

3. Comparative Method

• Aristotle: Studied 250 constitutions comparatively.
• Compares social conditions and events across countries.
• Requires comparing countries with similar civilizations and cultures.
• Prof. Ashirvadam: "Consider both similarities and differences."
• Notable users: Aristotle, Lord Bryce, Montesquieu.

4. Experimental Method

• Involves experiments in human social life, unlike physical sciences.
• Society is the laboratory, where political systems and culture change with society.
• Studies state activities to draw conclusions about new political systems based on success or failure.
• Nepal’s people’s movements are an example.

1.4 Relationship with Other Social Sciences

Until the 19th century, knowledge wasn’t divided into separate branches; all disciplines analyzed human activities. Later, political science was studied with philosophy.

a) With History

• Freeman: "History is past politics, and politics is present history."
• History is descriptive; political science is analytical.
• Bilobi: "History provides a third dimension to political science."
• History aids in studying the state, government, and power, serving as a guide and laboratory.

b) With Economics

• Economics studies production, distribution, and consumption; political science studies their management.
• Economic imbalances drive political changes.
• Governance is influenced by economic conditions.
• Political systems determine economic systems.
• Charles Beard: "Without economics, political science is unrealistic."

c) With Sociology

• Initially, both focused on state and society; later, political science focused on government, and sociology on non-political, non-economic aspects.
• Research methods like surveys originated from sociology.
• Prof. Giddings: "Teaching political theory without social science basics is futile."

d) With Psychology

• Political institutions are products of the human mind, creating a close relationship.
• Thinkers from Plato to modern times focus on psychological aspects of behavior.
• Barker: "We think like psychologists, unlike our zoologist ancestors."
• Freud’s psychoanalysis: Influenced political science.
• Garner: "Government must reflect people’s sentiments and morals."

e) With Geography

• Geography’s stability impacts political life.
• Aristotle: "Geography knowledge is essential for political science."
• Political cultures in geography affect state management.
• Rousseau: "Hot climates favor despots; moderate climates favor good governance."
• Montesquieu: "Government form and freedom are influenced by geography."
• Geopolitics and political geography emerged from this relationship.

f) With Law

• Effective governance requires well-crafted laws.
• The state creates, protects, and amends laws; politics is guided by laws.
• The state aims for welfare; laws aim to control unethical behavior.
• Seeley: Political science studies government.
• Society is the laboratory of political science.
• Adam Smith: Emphasizes the relationship with history and experimental methods.
• UNESCO: Four areas of political science:
  1. Political theory.
  2. Government.
  3. Public community.
  4. International relations.

Additional Notes:

• Graham Wallas: Authored Human Nature in Politics.
• Massimo Salvadori: "Political science’s study method seeks knowledge of political reality."
• Prof. Goodnow: Political science studies the state as a static and dynamic discipline.
• Manu: Classifies ancient political science literature into Dharmashastra, Dharmasutra, and Tika.
• David Easton: Political science as the authoritative allocation of values.
• Lowell: Emphasizes observational method.
• Max Weber: Highlights political science-sociology relationship.
• Lowis: Emphasizes experimental method.
• Parsons: Authored The Structure of Social Action.
• Plato: Authored Republic.
• Merriam: Authored New Aspects of Politics.
• Simon, Lasswell, Almond: Developed behavioral political science.
• Karl Marx: Gave birth to communism via historical methods.
• F. Bent: Authored The Process of Government.
• Geertz: Authored Old Societies and New Nations.
• Modern political theory: Divided into liberal and Marxist schools.
• American Political Science Association: Established in 1903.
• Charles Merriam: Led the behavioral movement.